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Grounding, Bounding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipment and Facilities

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1.5  DESCRIPTION
1.5.1  Facility Ground System
1.5.2  Grounding and Power Distribution Systems
1.5.3  Electrical Noise in Communications Systems
1.6  BONDING, SHIELDING, AND GROUNDING RELATIONSHIP
1.7  GROUNDING SAFETY PRACTICES

CHAPTER 2 – EARTHING AND EARTH ELECTRODE SUBSYSTEM
2.1 OBJECTIVES
2.1.1 Lightning Discharge
2.1.2 Fault Protection
2.1.3 Noise Reduction
2.2 RESISTANCE REQUIREMENTS
2.2.2 Resistance to Earth
2.2.3 Lightning Requirements
2.3 SOIL RESISTIVITY
2.3.2 Typical Resistivity Ranges
2.3.3 Environmental Effects
2.4 MEASUREMENT OF SOIL RESISTIVITY
2.4.2 Measurement Techniques
2.4.2.1 One-Electrode Method
2.4.2.2 Four-Terminal Method
2.5 TYPES OF EARTH ELECTRODE SUBSYSTEMS
2.5.2 Ground Rods
2.5.3 Buried Horizontal Conductors
2.5.4 Grids
2.5.5 Plates
2.5.6 Metal Frameworks of Buildings
2.5.7 Water Pipes
2.5.8 Incidental Metals
2.5.9 Well Casings
2.6 RESISTANCE PROPERTIES
2.6.1 Simple Isolated Electrodes

2.6.2 Resistance of Multiple Electrodes
2.6.2.1 Two Vertical Rods in Parallel
2.6.2.2 Square Array of Vertical Rods
2.6.2.3 Horizontal Grid (Mesh)
2.6.2.4 Vertical Rods Connected by a Grid
2.6.3 Transient Impedance of Electrodes
2.6.4 Effects of Nonhomogeneous (Layered) Earth
2.7 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE-TO-EARTH OF ELECTRODES
2.7.1 Introduction
2.7.2 Fall-of-Potential Method
2.7.2.1 Probe Spacing
2.7.2.2 Extensive Electrode Subsystems
2.7.2.3 Test Equipments
2.7.3 Three-Point (Triangulation) Method
2.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
2.8.1 Surface Voltages Above Earth Electrodes
2.8.1.1 Step Voltage Safety Limit
2.8.1.2 Step Voltages for Practical Electrodes
2.8.1.3 Minimizing Step Voltage
2.8.2 Heating of Electrodes
2.8.2.1 Steady State Current
2.8.2.2 Transient Current
2.8.2.3 Minimum Electrode Size
2.9  ELECTRODE ENHANCEMENT
2.9.1  Introduction
2.9.2  Water Retention
2.9.3  Chemical Salting
2.9.4  Electrode Encasement
2.9.5  Salting Methods
2.10  CATHODIC PROTECTION
2.10.1  Introduction
2.10.2  Protection Techniques
2.10.3  Sacrifical Anodes
2.10.4  Corrosive Atmospheres
2.11  GROUNDING IN ARCTIC REGIONS
2.11.1  Soil Resistivity
2.11.2  Improving Electrical Grounding in Frozen Soils
2.11.2.1  Electrode Resistance
2.11.2.2  Installation and Measurement Methods

CHAPTER 3 – LIGHTNING PROTECTION SUBSYSTEM
3.1  THE PHENOMENON OF LIGHTNING
3.2  DEVELOPMENT OF A LIGHTNING FLASH
3.3  INFLUENCE OF STRUCTURE HEIGHT
3.4  STRIKE LIKELIHOOD
3.5  ATTRACTIVE AREA
3.5.1  Structures Less Than 100 Meters High
3.5.2  Cone of Protection
3.6  LIGHTNING EFFECTS
3.6.1  Flash Parameters
3.6.2  Mechanical and Thermal Effects
3.6.3  Electrical Effects
3.6.3.1  Conductor Impedance Effects
3.6.3.2  Induced Voltage Effects
3.6.3.3  Capacitively-Coupled Voltage
3.6.3.4  Earth Resistance
3.7  BASIC PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS
3.8  DETERMINING THE NEED FOR PROTECTION
3.9 APPLICABLE CODES

CHAPTER 4 -FAULT PROTECTION SUBSYSTEM
4.1 FAULT PROTECTION
4.1.1 Power System Faults
4.1.2 Ground-Fault-Circuit-Interrupter (GFCI)
4.2 EARTH CONNECTION
4.3 AC POWER LINE GROUND
4.4 TEST EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER 5 – GROUNDING OF SIGNAL REFERENCE SUBSYSTEM
5.1  INTRODUCTION
5.2  CONDUCTOR CONSIDERATIONS
5.2.1  Direct Current Resistance
5.2.2  Alternating Current Impedance
5.2.3  Resistance Properties vs Impedance Properties
5.2.4  Effects of Geometry
5.2.4.1  Stranded Cables
5.2.4.2  Rectangular Conductors
5.2.4.3  Tubular Conductors
5.2.4.4  Structural Steel Members
5.3  SIGNAL REFERENCE SUBSYSTEM NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
5.3.1  Floating Ground
5.3.2  Single-Point Ground (for Lower Frequencies)
5.3.3  Multipoint Ground (for Higher Frequencies)
5.3.4  Floating System
5.4  SITE APPLICATIONS
5.4.1  Lower Frequency Network
5.4.2  Higher Frequency Network
5.4.3  Frequency Limits

CHAPTER 6 – INTERFERENCE COUPLING AND REDUCTION
6.1  INTRODUCTION
6.2  COUPLING MECHANISMS
6.2.1  Conductive Coupling
6.2.2  Free-Space Coupling
6.3  COMMON-MODE NOISE
6.3.1  Basic Theory of Common-Mode Coupling
6.3.2  Differential Amplifier
6.4  MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
6.4.1  Reduction of Coupling
6.4.1.1  Reference Plane Impedance Minimization
6.4.1.2  Spatial Separation
6.4.1.3  Reduction of Circuit Loop Area
6.4.1.4  Shielding
6.4.1.5  Balanced Lines
6.4.2  Alternate Methods
6.5  FACILITY AND EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER 7 – BONDING
7.1  DEFINITION OF BONDING
7.2  PURPOSES OF BONDING
7.3  RESISTANCE CRITERIA
7.4  DIRECT BONDS
7.4.1  Contact Resistance
7.4.2  Direct Bonding Techniques
7.4.2.1  Welding
7.4.2.2  Brazing
7.4.2.3  Soft Solder
7.4.2.4  Bolts
7.4.2.5  Rivets
7.4.2.6  Conductive Adhesive
7.4.2.7  Comparison of Techniques
7.5  INDIRECT BONDS
7.5.1  Resistance
7.5.2  Frequency Effects
7.6  SURFACE PREPARATION
7.6.1  Solid Materials
7.6.2  Organic Compounds
7.6.3  Platings and Inorganic Finishes
7.6.4  Corrosion By-Products
7.7  COMPLETION OF THE BOND
7.8  BOND CORROSION
7.8.1  Chemical Basis of Corrosion
7.8.1.1  Electrochemical Series
7.8.1.2  Galvanic Series
7.8.2  Relative Area of Anodic Member
7.8.3  Protective Coatings

CHAPTER 8 – SHIELDING
8.1  FUNCTION OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELD
8.2  BASIC SHIELDING THEORY
8.2.1  Oppositely Induced Fields
8.2.2  Transmission Line Analogy
8.2.3  Nonuniform Shielding
8.3 SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTINUOUS SINGLE-THICKNESS SHIELDS.
8.3.1 Absorption Loss
8.3.2 Reflection Loss
8.3.3 Re-Reflection Correction Factor
8.3.4 Total Shielding Effectiveness
8.4 SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS OF OTHER SHIELDS
8.4.1 Multiple Solid Shields
8.4.2 Coatings and Thin-Film Shields
8.4.3 Screens and Perforated Metal Shields
8.5 SHIELD DISCONTINUITY EFFECTS (APERTURES)
8.5.1 Seams Without Gaskets
8.5.2 Seams With Gaskets
8.5.3 Penetration Holes
8.6 SELECTION OF SHIELDING MATERIALS
8.7 USE OF CONVENTIONAL BUILDING MATERIALS
8.8 CABLE AND CONNECTOR SHIELDING
8.8.1 Cable Shields
8.8.2 Terminations and Connectors
8.9 SHIELDED ENCLOSURES (SCREEN ROOMS)
8.10 TESTING OF SHIELDS
8.11 PERSONNEL PROTECTION SHIELDS
8.12 DETERMINATION OF SHIELDING REQUIREMENTS
8.12.1 Equipment Disturbances
8.12.2 Electromagnetic Environmental Survey
8.12.3 Equipment EMI Properties
8.13 SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 9 – PERSONNEL PROTECTION
9.1 ELECTRIC SHOCK
9.1.1 Levels of Electric Shock
9.1.2 Shock Prevention
9.2 STATIC ELECTRICITY
9.3 RADIO FREQUENCY (RF) RADIATION HAZARDS
9.4 LASER HAZARDS
9.5 X-RAY RADIATION
9.6 REFERENCES

CHAPTER 10 – NUCLEAR EMP EFFECTS
10.1  INTRODUCTION
10.2  EMP GENERATION
10.2.1  High-Altitude EMP (HEMP)
10.2.2  Surface-Burst EMP
10.2.3  Other EMP Phenomena
10.2.4  Comparison With Lightning
10.3  HEMP INTERACTION WITH SYSTEMS
10.3.1  Current in Long Lines
10.3.2  HEMP Interaction With Local Structure
10.4  PROTECTION AGAINST HEMP
10.4.1  HEMP Barrier
10.4.2  Allocation of Protection

CHAPTER 11 – NOTES
11.1  SUBJECT TERM (KEY WORD) LISTING

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