Fossil Plant High-Energy Piping Damage : Theory and Practice
Volume 1: Piping Fundamentals
TOC
1 INTRODUCTION
2 DESIGN
Introduction
The Design Process
Fundamental Questions
Material Selection
Support Locations
Stress Analysis
Design Codes and Regulations
ASME Codes
Design Life
System Loads
Dead Weight Loads
Pressure Loads
Wind Loads
Seismic Loads
Pressure Relief Loads
Expansion Loads
System Supports, Design, and Function
Basic Design Steps
Flow Considerations and Modeling
Flow-Related Dynamic Load Events
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion
Inspection Methods
Assessment Approaches
Attemperator Design and Function
3 METALLURGY OF STEELS
Introduction
Comparison of Material Standards
Historical Perspective on Material Changes in the American Power Piping Standards
Steel Metallurgy
Iron-Carbon Systems
Nonequilibrium Cooling of Steels
Continuous Cooling Transformations
Effects of Composition on Microstructure and Properties
Elemental Effects
Mechanical Properties
Strength
Fatigue
Creep
Creep Crack Growth
Creep-Fatigue
Classification of Steels Used in Power Plant Applications
Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Ferritic and Advanced Ferritic Boiler Steels
Austenitic Steels
Carbon Steels
Microstructure
Mechanical Properties
Allowable Stress Values
Creep Properties
Aging Effects
Chromium-Molybdenum Steels
Microstructure
Mechanical Properties
Allowable Stress Values
Creep Properties
Aging Effects
Carbide Changes and Coarsening
Carbide Embrittlement
Temper Embrittlement
Austenitic Steels
Microstructure
Allowable Stress Values
Creep Properties
Aging Behavior
Sigma Phase
Sensitization
Grain Growth
Advanced Ferritic Steels
Microstructure
Mechanical Properties
Allowable Stress Values
Creep Strength
Aging Behavior
4 WELDING FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction
Welding Processes
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Process Description
Consumables
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Spray Transfer
Short Circuiting Arc Transfer
Globular Transfer
Pulsed-Arc Spray Transfer
Flux Cored Arc Welding
Weld Design
Microstructural Development
Solidification Structure
Buoyancy and Electromagnetic Effects
Surface Tension
Inclusion Formation
Microstructure of the Heat Affected Zone
Welding Defects
Cracks
Incomplete Fusion
Incomplete Joint Penetration
Inclusions
Porosity
Undercut
5 MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND ERECTION1
Introduction
Piping
Historical Perspective on Piping Codes—Boiler Proper, Boiler External, and Power
Piping
Development of ASME B31 1
Fabrication of Piping Components
Seamless Pipe
Pierce and Pilger Rolling Process
Plug Rolling Process
Pierce and Draw Process
Extrusion Process
Forged and Bored
Centrifugally Cast
Welded Pipe
Pipe Bends
Furnace Bending
Incremental Bending
Induction Bending
Ram Bending
Rotary Draw Bending
Roll Bending
Pipe Fittings
6 OPERATION
7 DAMAGE MECHANISMS AND MODELS
Introduction
Creep
Introduction
Crack Initiation
Crack Growth
Analytical Techniques
Creep Deformation—Life Models
Creep Crack Growth Models
Damage Accumulation Rules
Commercially Available Modeling Packages
Fatigue
Introduction
Crack Initiation
Crack Growth
Analytical Techniques
Introduction
Nominal Stress Approaches—Goodman Diagram and Modified Goodman
Diagram
The Local Strain Approach to Fatigue
Miner’s Rule for Calculation of Fatigue Life-Fraction
Fracture Mechanics Approaches to Crack Growth by Fatigue
Creep-Fatigue
Introduction
Crack Initiation
Crack Growth
Analytical Techniques
Life Prediction Techniques
Crack Growth Under Creep-Fatigue Loading
Comparison of Analytical Techniques for Creep, Fatigue, and Creep-Fatigue
Flow-Accelerated Corrosion
Introduction
Operational Conditions
Oxidation-Reduction Potential
Water pH
Temperature
Flow Velocity
Mass Transfer
Geometry
Materials Influences
Analysis Techniques
Examples
Other Potential Damage Mechanisms
Microstructural Degradation and Embrittlement
Spheroidization
Graphitization
Temper Embrittlement
Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking and Corrosion Fatigue
Erosion
Cavitation
Material Selection Considerations
8 PROGRAMMATIC APPROACHES TO LIFE MANAGEMENT OF PIPING SYSTEMS
Introduction
Three-Level, Phased Approach to Assessment
Level I
Level II
Level III
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Phased Approach to Assessment
Currently Available Prediction Tools
Introduction
BLESS (Boiler Life Evaluation and Simulation System)
Inputs
Material Properties
Calculational Methods
OmegaPipe Software
Overview
Piping Stress Analysis
Local Weld Stresses
Life Assessment
CHECWORKS™ and CHECUP™ Programs
European Programs
9 PIPING SYSTEM SURVEYS
Introduction and Background
Support System Design1
Types of Hanger Supports
Flexible Supports
Rigid Supports
Snubbers and Sway Braces
Dampers
Support Attachments (Pipe Side)
Evaluation of Hanger and Support Performance
What to Look for in a Hanger Support Evaluation
When a Hanger Support Problem Has Been Identified
Replacing a Hanger Support
Addressing Chronic Hanger Support Problems
In Situ Hanger Testing
Sagging and Skews in Critical Piping
Hot and Cold Hanger Walkdown Inspections
Preparation
Inspection Equipment and Documentation Aids
Documentation of the Hanger Walkdown
Summary of Hanger Walkdown Documentation Requirements
System Survey Checklist
General Hanger Observations
Constant Load Support Observations
Variable Load Support Observations
Rigid Support Observations
Sway Brace Support Observations
Snubber and Shock Suppressors Support Observations
General Piping Observations
10 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Introduction
Assessment Objective (Macro/Micro)
Access and Required Surface Preparation
No Surface Preparation
Surface Debris and Scale Removal
Access Limitations
Visual Testing
Magnetic Particle Testing
Dye Penetrant Testing
Eddy Current Testing
Conventional Ultrasonic Testing
Advanced Ultrasonic Testing
Time-of-Flight Diffraction
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing
Acoustic Emission Crack Detection
Pulsed Eddy Current Testing
Radiographic Testing
Guided Wave Ultrasonic Testing
11 METALLURGICAL EXAMINATION AND ANALYSIS AND MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
Introduction
Material Sampling
Large-Sample Collection Methods
Boat Sampling
Plug Sampling
Small-Sample Collection Methods
Small Cone Sampling
Sample Removal by Drilling
Surface Sampling System
Remediation
Hardness Testing
Overview
Advantages and Disadvantages
Application in Piping Systems
Alloy Identification
Manufacturer’s Identification
Qualitative Alloy Identification
Quantitative Alloy Identification
Material Testing
Mechanical Testing
Metallographic Examination
Metallurgical Replication
Overview
Casting Replication
Metallurgical Replication
Application in Piping Systems
Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Accelerated Creep-Rupture Testing
12 INSTRUMENTATION AND MONITORING
Introduction
Thermocouples
Strain Gauges
Creep-FatiguePro On-Line Damage Monitoring
Acoustic Emission On-Line Damage Monitoring
Water Chemistry
Dimensional Measurements
13 DATA STORAGE, RETRIEVAL, AND EVALUATION
Introduction
Traditional Methods
PC-Based Applications
Web-Based Applications
System Isolation and Security
Software Changes, Patches, and Upgrades
Data Collection Periods
Remote Access
System Capacity
14 REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT
Introduction
Governing Codes
Type and Extent of Repair
Permanent Repairs
Temporary Repairs
Piping System Support or Restraint
Repair Design
Pipe or Component Replacement
Complete Weld Removal—Through-Wall Weld Repairs
Non-Through-Wall Weld Repairs
Circumferential Repairs
Localized Repairs
Through-Wall Defects
Base Metal Repairs
Plug Sample Repairs
Radiographic Plugs
Other Repair Designs
Repair Considerations
Flaw Excavation
Fit-up, Tack Welding, and Temporary Attachments
Fit-Up
Cleaning
Alignment
Tack Welding
Temporary Attachments
Preheating and Post-Weld Heat Treatment
General
Preheat
Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Prerequisites
Temperature Measurement
Post-Weld Heat Treatment Procedure
Resistance Heating Pad Installation
Post-Weld Heat Treatment Schedule
Nondestructive Evaluation Following Completion of Post-Weld Heat
Treatment
Alternatives to Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Component Replacement
Like-for-Like
Upgrading by Design or Material Improvement
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